Different Alternatives To Imprisonment Criminology Essay

Various Alternatives To Imprisonment Criminology Essay 1. Presentation Options in contrast to detainment are another methodology internationally in rectifications. Following the World War II, punitive specialists started to question the knowledge of keeping the jail alone as the essential remedial methodologies. As indicated by Todd, Clear Braga, (Todd, 1995, p. 80) gives that network Based Correctional methodologies develop in become normal for second and third time lawbreakers to get sentences of probation with specific conditions set up by the court and where similar criminals is on the network administration programs. The attention here is on options in contrast to detainment by looking it through globally acknowledged guidelines. The creators of this paper will concentrate on the accompanying options in contrast to detainment: network administration, periodical detainment, remedial management, house capture/electronic observing and day-parole. 2. Various ALTERNATIVES TO IMPRISONMENT 2.1 Community Service Network Service is an option the court may utilize when it has concluded that a people offense is not kidding and that he/she is appropriate for making remuneration by beneficial unpaid work in the network. Network Service ought to be truly and genuinely requesting of the wrongdoer in that it is a limitation of opportunity, includes self-restraint and a regard for other people and ought to draw in the guilty party in errands or circumstances that challenge his/her demeanor, experience and capacity. Network administration can in this manner be a constructive method of causing a guilty party to make up for offenses and it can support self-awareness and dignity. It shows the wrongdoer that the network is influenced by culpability and the network can see that guilty parties can make a useful as opposed to ruinous commitment to the network. (ZNCCS Service, 1997, p. 4) Lawful structure for elective non-custodial authorizations is featured in universal rules and national enactment as gave by (Bukurura, 2003, p. 82). On global level it is accommodated in the United Nations Standards Minimum Rules for non-custodial measures (Nations, 1990). In the United States of America for example, network based approvals are significant of the United States criminal equity framework. Experts have continually shown their eagerness to receive proof based practice. As indicated by (Melvor, 2004) who portrayed network administration in Belgium, Netherlands, Scotland and Spain in co-work point of view by expressing that, ebb and flow criminological exploration is especially intrigued to know whether they are not seeing a corrective turn which appears to western popular governments today than not many decades prior. The new corrective writing and study on the way of life of control have fuelled a continuous discussion and examination on this inquiry. Network administration request was to assist the network as it was presented in Spanish enactment with the 1995 criminal code of that nation. The Uganda Correctional Service likewise presented the Uganda Community Service Bill, 1998, with its principle targets to give network administration to people who carry out minor offenses, so as to lessen packing in Prisons, to restore detainees in the networks by accomplishing profitable work and to forestall minor guilty parties blending in with no-nonsense crooks. The bill further looks to enable a court which convicts an individual of a minor offense, to coordinate the guilty party, with assent of the wrongdoer to perform network administration as an option in contrast to detainment. (Administration, 1998, p. 1) The main activities in the Community Service Orders began with National refinement course that was held in 2002 and went to by Regional Governors, line Ministries, Home Affairs, and Justice, Prisons and Correctional Service and heads of Criminal Justice System. (Organizer, Consultative Visit Report, 2002, p. 1) The proposed Bill on Community Service Orders in Namibia presents different arrangements that may encourage the usage of Community Service Orders in the nation. It is essential to take note of that according to condemning perspective, Community Service Orders is an alternative utilized in suitable cases to keep a guilty party out of jail. In like manner a relationship exists between the detainment that may have been forced and the Community Service Order that will be served. (Facilitator, Namibia Community Service Orders, Manual, 2005, p. 5) 2.2 Periodical Imprisonment The court can guide a wrongdoer to remain in Prison on ends of the week or around evening time somewhere in the range of 18h00 and 06h00. A sentence of intermittent detainment is a sentence of detainment during which the submitted individual might be discharged for timeframes during the day or night or for times of days, or both, or whenever indicted for a lawful offense, other than first degree murder, a Class X or Class 1 lawful offense, focused on any area, civil, or local restorative or confinement establishment or office in this State for such timeframes as the court may coordinate. Except if the court arranges something else, the specific occasions and states of discharge will be dictated by the Department of Corrections, the sheriff, or the Superintendent of the place of amendments, who is regulating the program. (b) A sentence of intermittent detainment might be forced to allow the respondent to: (1) Seek business (2) Work (3) Conduct a business or other independently employed (4) Attend to family needs (5) Attend an instructive organization Concerning periodical detainment, the Namibian Correctional System is line with previously mentioned definition. 2.3 Correctional Supervision It is a sentence which is served inside the network and not in the Prison. An individual who is carrying out a punishment of Correctional oversight is known as a probationer. The point of Correctional oversight is to give a methods for recovery inside the network, along these lines safeguarding the significant connections which the guilty party may have with their family or network. Remedial management permits, or urges the guilty party to be utilized. While detainment brings about lost work and the guilty parties inability to help their dependants and result in extra expenses for the State. Since guilty parties are in the network, they can settle on choices and assume liability for their life. Guilty parties are additionally urged to make strides towards rectifying their criminal conduct through support in rehabilitative projects. An individual condemned to remedial oversight stays under the management and control of the Department of Correctional Services until the sentence lapses. Oversight appears as immediate checking of the guilty parties developments and consistence with the sentences conditions, just as standard help meetings with social specialists. States of the sentence may incorporate a time of house capture; the prerequisite that the individual be home between determined hours of the day; that the person in question goes to a treatment program; poise from liquor or medications; denial from leaving an authoritative area; or a specific number of long periods of network administration. Any or these conditions might be forced. (Dissel, 1997, p. 4) Redirection is embraced by Section 6 of the Criminal Procedure Act, and can be utilized where the offense perpetrated is moderately minor. (Equity, 1977, p. 76). At the point when the guilty party has conceded duty regarding the offense, the investigator can suspend the indictment of the endless supply of specific conditions. This is as a rule relying on the prerequisite that the guilty party goes to a specific treatment program. Charges are pulled back after the conditions have been satisfied. The Namibian enactment makes arrangement in the Prisons Act 17 of 1998 (Gazzette, 1998, p. 83) Section 96 and 97 that detainees be discharge on parole or probation on conditions as might be controlled by the Zonal Release Board. 2.4 House capture/electronic checking Home confinement can be viewed as an option in contrast to detainment and intends to decrease re-insulting while additionally adapting to expanding jail numbers and increasing expenses. It permits reasonable guilty parties to hold or look for business, keep up family connections and duties and go to rehabilitative projects that contribute towards tending to the reasons for their culpable. The terms of house capture can vary, however guilty parties are once in a while limited to their homes 24 hours per day. Most projects permit utilized guilty parties to proceed to work, and just restrict them during non-working hours. They can leave their homes for explicit, foreordained purposes; for instance visits to the post trial agent or police headquarters, strict exemptions and clinical arrangements. (Spohn, 2008, p. 52). Numerous projects additionally permit the guilty party to leave the home during normal, pre-affirmed times so as to complete general family undertakings, for example, shopping, faith gatherings, performing Community Services or going to approved exercises. (Stinchcomb, 2005, p. 99) House capture in certain nations, for example, Canada and New Zealand is regularly upheld using innovation items or administrations. An electronic sensor is in some cases bolted to the guilty parties lower leg known as a lower leg screen. A little compact checking unit that get radio signs created by guilty parties lower leg or arm band which is connected to a focal PC framework gives confirmation of a wrongdoers whereabouts. (Champion, 2008) The electronic sensor transmits a GPS sign to a base handset. The base handset is associated with police or an observing help. On the off chance that the guilty party with the sensor moves excessively far from home, the infringement is recorded and the correct specialists are brought. Numerous lower leg screens would now be able to identify endeavored evacuation; this is to demoralize altering. The checking administration is frequently contracted out to privately owned businesses, which allocate workers to electronically screen numerous convicts all the while. In the event that the sensors identify an infringement, the checking administration calls the convicts probation office

Parental Involvement in the School Setting Free Essays

As the assorted variety of the United States educational system keeps on turning, the educators of today are continuously stressed to flexibly the most ideal guidance for each child. Despite the physical resources or subsidizing a school may hold, imperative assets remain: the guardians of the understudies. Be that as it may, with the changing socioeconomics of students ‘ family units and progressively hot plans, is the room female parent ( or father ) standpoint numerous educators may hold practical in today ‘s society? In unconventional nations of the state, it is progressively normal to see stay-at-home female guardians or male guardians, or guardians with adaptable work plans, because of more prominent lavishness. We will compose a custom exposition test on Parental Involvement in the School Setting or on the other hand any comparable theme just for you Request Now It is ordinarily this sort of single that we partner with room female guardians ( or male guardians ) who are aiding the schoolroom. While every single financial gathering stand to benefit from parental commitment in the schools, Lam ( 2002 ) recognizes that parent commitment helps â€Å" give understudies the joining in and assets they need from school. † Schools with less cash, along these lines, should benefit most from the action of guardians in the schoolroom. At the point when teachers in urban or rustic schoolrooms need books or stuffs, guardians can go to the liberation by going required at school. Schools that are going all the more racially various can collect extraordinary advantages from parental commitment. Slope et Al. ( 2004 ) found that parent commitment in employees related emphatically to accomplishment for African American students. For urban, low-salary understudies in the Head Start plan, commitment of guardians in the schools helped better conduct practices, hyperactivity, and an inadequacy of joining in. This is exceptionally obvious when commitment in the school goes with instructive help at place. ( Fantuzzo, McWayne, and Perry 2004 ) The issue that emerges is that numerous guardians in the networks sought after do non hold the capacity to aid the conventional sense. For outline, guardians in an oppressed nation might be working various occupations to drag out their family units, and it is non a choice to pass a hr a hebdomad with their student ‘s schoolroom. Or then again settler guardians may encounter unfit to help since they do non talk the etymological correspondence utilized in the school. Also, potentially the guardians are embarrassed about their ain level of scholarly accomplishment and their powerlessness to help their children with school task. A 2004 overview by Hill et Al. discovered that parent commitment in school from seventh through eleventh class reduced social occupations, which in twist identified with achievement and desires. Notwithstanding, this was simply the case for guardians with higher instructive degrees themselves. For the lower parental guidance gathering, the solitary feature schoolroom commitment helped was with goals. One ground for this outcome might be a patterned strategy distinguished in a review by Englund et Al. ( 2004 ) Parents who themselves are realizing will gracefully better bearing to their children preceding tutoring. This instructive help right off the bat in life correlatives with a higher IQ, and a higher Intelligence remainder increments parent standpoints for their child and parent commitment in the schoolroom. Conflicting grounds exists each piece great, saying that guardians ‘ guidance degrees do non sway their commitment in schools, since guidance might be an opposing elemen t with work, cut, or different factors. An outline of how the run of the mill parental commitment system of certain teachers accomplishes n’t work is prove in Martinez and Valazquez ‘s 2000 article on Latino transient laborers. They compose that teachers ordinarily hold the standpoint that parent commitment in their children ‘s guidance ought to go around fixing kids for school, coming to class supported occasions, and making exercises the educator petitions. Notwithstanding, the existence fortunes of numerous Hispanic migrator laborers keep them from convey throughing this capacity. At the point when these people need cut, expert articulation in English, and instructive achievement, they discover they can't run into educator viewpoints. It is non that they are reluctant †it is that they are unable given their situation. Proof shows that securing guardians associated with their children ‘s schools can simply face to positive results, however numerous guardians in our multicultural society can't reflect the run of the mill â€Å" included parent † picture numerous educators hold as a model. Impacts of work can hinder the clasp accessible for aiding the schoolroom, and shame about instructive degree or etymological correspondence capability prevent the individuals who might somehow or another have the option to be dynamic in the schoolroom. An exposition by Cotton and Wickelund ( 1989 ) brings up that guardians from denied foundations can do a distinction and experience advantageous in the schoolroom whenever given legitimate arrangement and consolation by the school removal and teacher. While educators figure out how to more readily go to the requests of students in the assorted schoolroom, the requests and wants of guardians ought to be viewed as a cardinal factor in the achievement of these children. To better the commitment of guardians in schools, educators ought to accept outside of the run of the mill gatherings and overseeing field trip jobs that simply certain guardians can bear to bring through. An article in Parents magazine portrays choices, for example, keeping a school site page or staffing a prep hotline. Guardians who talk non-English etymological correspondences could help pass on assignments with students who talk the equivalent semantic correspondence. Instructors can tape or broadcast gatherings and occasions so individuals who are non free during the school twenty-four hours can see them at a clasp progressively advantageous for them. Tending to the requests of the family and network all in all is another way to advance commitment by a various populace, as pushed in an Education World online article. Making a family unit focus at the school to elevate conveying permits guardians to end by the school whenever it might suit them. Family needs can be evaluated to flexibly for more prominent consideration for the family unit and network. For delineation, if a family needs cultural help referrals or improved dish to social insurance, the school can move as an undertaking to ensure that these fundamental requests are met. Youngsters can larn better in schools when they are solid and bolstered, and trust between the guardians and the school can be set up when family units realize the children are being thought about even past the school twenty-four hours. At long last, leting guardians and family units to partake in the manners by which they feel comfortable can do being included a less scary endeavor. Educators and chiefs comprehend that making a strong instructive condition for their students is the principal measure toward scholastic achievement. While it is difficult to order accurately how the parent-kid connection happens outside of the schoolroom, research shows that securing guardians engaged with the schoolroom can help children of all foundations arrive at their instructive closures. Be that as it may, there is an interest for adjustment according to educators with regards to what characterizes â€Å" parental commitment. † As our networks advance and become dynamically assorted, it is basic to be insightful of the stores guardians may hold about being dynamic in school. In this way it is the school ‘s obligation to gauge the requests of the network and the achievements guardians can gracefully, thus flexibly guardians with the flexibleness, modifications, and support important to remember all guardians for the instructive framework. Step by step instructions to refer to Parental Involvement in the School Setting, Essay models Parental Involvement In The School Setting Free Essays As the decent variety of the United States educational system keeps on turning, the instructors of today are continuously stressed to flexibly the most ideal guidance for each child. Despite the physical resources or financing a school may hold, fundamental assets remain: the guardians of the students. Be that as it may, with the adjusting socioeconomics of understudies ‘ families and increasingly hot plans, is the room female parent ( or father ) standpoint numerous teachers may hold practical in today ‘s society? In unconventional nations of the state, it is increasingly normal to see stay-at-home female guardians or male guardians, or guardians with adaptable work plans, because of more noteworthy lavishness. We will compose a custom paper test on Parental Involvement In The School Setting or on the other hand any comparable point just for you Request Now It is ordinarily this sort of single that we partner with room female guardians ( or male guardians ) who are aiding the schoolroom. While every single financial gathering stand to benefit from parental commitment in the schools, Lam ( 2002 ) recognizes that parent commitment helps â€Å" furnish understudies with the joining in and assets they need from school. † Schools with less cash, in this way, should benefit most from the movement of guardians in the schoolroom. At the point when teachers in urban or provincial schoolrooms need books or stuffs, guardians can go to the liberation by going required at school. Schools that are going all the more racially different can collect extraordinary advantages from parental commitment. Slope et Al. ( 2004 ) found that parent commitment in employees related emphatically to accomplishment for African American students. For urban, low-pay students in the Head Start plan, commitment of guardians in the schools helped better conduct practices, hyperactivity, and a lack of joining in. This is curiously evident when commitment in the school goes with instructive help at place. ( Fantuzzo, McWayne, and Perry 2004 ) The issue that emerges is that numerous guardians in the networks sought after do non h

Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War

Clash of Balaclava in the Crimean War The Battle of Balaclava was battled October 25, 1854, during the Crimean War (1853-1856) and was a piece of the bigger Siege of Sevastopol. Having arrived at Kalamita Bay in September, the Allied armed force had initiated a moderate development on Sevastopol. At the point when the Allies chose for lay attack to the city as opposed to mount an immediate ambush, the British got themselves liable for safeguarding the eastern ways to deal with the region including the key port of Balaclava. Lacking adequate men for this undertaking, they before long went under assault from Prince Aleksandr Menshikovs powers. Progressing under the order of General Pavel Liprandi, the Russians were at first ready to push back British and Ottoman powers close to Balaclava. This development was at last stopped by a little infantry power and the Heavy Brigade of the Cavalry Division. The fight finished with the acclaimed charge of the Light Brigade which came to fruition because of a progression of misjudged orders. Quick Facts: Battle of Balaclava Strife: Crimean War (1853-1856)Dates: October 25, 1854Armies Commanders:AlliesLord Raglan20,000 British, 7,000 French, 1,000 OttomanRussiansGeneral Pavel Liprandi25,000 men78 gunsCasualties:Allies: 615 murdered and woundedRussia: 627 executed and injured Foundation On September 5, 1854, the joined British and French armadas left the Ottoman port of Varna (in present-day Bulgaria) and moved towards the Crimean Peninsula. After nine days, Allied powers started arriving on the sea shores of Kalamita Bay around 33 miles north of the port of Sevastopol. Throughout the following a few days, 62,600 men and 137 firearms came aground. As this power initiated its walk south, Prince Aleksandr Menshikov looked to end the adversary at the Alma River. Meetingâ at the Battle of the Alma on September 20, the Allies prevailed upon a triumph the Russians and proceeded with their development south towards Sevastopol. <img information srcset=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/ymGftNmabGmHPC6jUQfREGycOSg=/300x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/ruler raglan-loc-5c057f0746e0fb00012debe1.jpg 300w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/cqnT6il4Z3pgrWbxjtswDyitF6M=/824x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/master raglan-loc-5c057f0746e0fb00012debe1.jpg 824w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/_grqtdY4OtcTVcUeg7fyo7E5osc=/1348x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/master raglan-loc-5c057f0746e0fb00012debe1.jpg 1348w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/dqRD9qDpmxKTv-59FtvJiQcbOnE=/2397x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/ruler raglan-loc-5c057f0746e0fb00012debe1.jpg 2397w information src=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/MSXTC36EC96Z5T2jcxWCudwIjVM=/2397x1877/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/ruler raglan-loc-5c057f0746e0fb00012debe1.jpg src=//:0 alt=Lord Raglan class=lazyload information click-tracked=true information img-lightbox=true information expand=300 id=mntl-sc-square image_1-0-10 information following container=true /> Field Marshal Fitzroy Somerset, first Baron Raglan. Library of Congress Despite the fact that the British administrator, Lord Raglan, supported a quick quest for the beaten adversary, his French partner, Marshal Jacques St. Arnaud, favored an increasingly quiet pace (Map). Gradually moving south, their late advancement gave Menshikov time to plan barriers and re-structure his beaten armed force. Passing inland of Sevastopol, the Allies looked to move toward the city from the south as maritime insight recommended the guards here were more fragile than those in the north. This move was embraced by noted specialist Lieutenant General John Fox Burgoyne, child of General John Burgoyne, who was filling in as a guide to Raglan. Bearing a troublesome walk, Raglan and St. Arnaud chose for lay attack as opposed to straightforwardly ambush the city. In spite of the fact that disliked with their subordinates, this choice saw work start on attack lines. To help their activities, the French built up a base on the west coast at Kamiesh, while the British took Balaclava in the south. The Allies Establish Themselves By possessing Balaclava, Raglan submitted the British to guarding the Allies right flank, a crucial he came up short on the men to achieve successfully. Situated outside of the fundamental Allied lines, work started on furnishing Balaclava with its own guarded system. Toward the north of the city were statures which slipped into the South Valley. Along the northern edge of the valley were the Causeway Heights across which ran the Woronzoff Road which gave an imperative connect to the attack activities at Sevastopol. To ensure the street, Turkish soldiers started assembling a progression of redoubts starting with Redoubt No. 1 in the east on Canroberts Hill. Over the statures was the North Valley which was limited by the Fedioukine Hills toward the north and the Sapounã © Heights toward the west. To protect this region, Raglan had just Lord Lucans Cavalry Division, which was stayed outdoors at the western finish of the valleys, the 93rd Highlanders, and an unforeseen of Royal Marines. In the weeks since Alma, Russian stores had arrived at the Crimea and Menshikov started arranging a negative mark against the Allies. The Russians Rebound Having cleared his military east as the Allies drew closer, Menshikov endowed the safeguard of Sevastopol to Admirals Vladimir Kornilov and Pavel Nakhimov. An insightful move, this permitted the Russian general to keep moving against the adversary while additionally accepting fortifications. Assembling around 25,000 men, Menshikov taught General Pavel Liprandi to move to strike Balaclava from the east. Catching the town of Chorgun on October 18, Liprandi had the option to survey the Balaclava barriers. Building up his arrangement of assault, the Russian administrator expected for a segment to take Kamara in the east, while another assaulted the eastern finish of Causeway Heights and close by Canroberts Hill. These ambushes were to be upheld by Lieutenant General Ivan Ryzhovs mounted force while a section under Major General Zhabokritsky moved onto the Fedioukine Heights. Starting his assault at an early stage October 25, Liprandis powers had the option to take Kamara and overpowered the protectors of Redoubt No. 1 on Canroberts Hill. Squeezing forward, they prevailing with regards to taking Redoubts Nos. 2, 3, and 4, while dispensing substantial misfortunes on their Turkish safeguards. Seeing the fight from his central command on the Sapounã © Heights, Raglan requested the first and fourth Divisions to leave the lines at Sevastopol to help the 4,500 protectors at Balaclava. General Franã §ois Canrobert, instructing the French armed force, likewise sent fortifications including the Chasseurs dAfrique. Conflict of the Cavalry Trying to abuse his prosperity, Liprandi requested forward Ryzhovs mounted force. Progressing over the North Valley with between 2,000 to 3,000 men, Ryzhov peaked the Causeway Heights before spotting Brigadier General James Scarletts Heavy (Cavalry) Brigade moving over his front. He additionally observed the Allied infantry position, comprising of the 93rd Highlands and the remainders of the Turkish units, before the town of Kadikoi. Withdrawing 400 men of the Ingermanland Hussars, Ryzhov requested them to clear the infantry. <img information srcset=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/tqZC7cpa32kh27KlNOvK14R_KTE=/300x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Robert_Gibb_-_The_Thin_Red_Line-5c057cc7c9e77c0001d27bbb.jpg 300w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/ZEB6ThQ9Mo3mZ6GzyIVW1Pm1Dwk=/725x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Robert_Gibb_-_The_Thin_Red_Line-5c057cc7c9e77c0001d27bbb.jpg 725w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/MOhEDyiyPvFVP3uOJOwEt8_C9dY=/1150x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Robert_Gibb_-_The_Thin_Red_Line-5c057cc7c9e77c0001d27bbb.jpg 1150w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/a-WY_7pK-yfxNZveb1-MALWlK3U=/2000x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Robert_Gibb_-_The_Thin_Red_Line-5c057cc7c9e77c0001d27bbb.jpg 2000w information src=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/32woU2EYVgZ1ChxONX9EebaoBjE=/2000x992/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Robert_Gibb_-_The_Thin_Red_Line-5c057cc7c9e77c0001d27bbb.jpg src=//:0 alt=Thin Red Line class=lazyload information click-tracked=true information img-lightbox=true information expand=300 id=mntl-sc-square image_1-0-30 information following container=true /> The Thin Red Line, oil on canvas, by Robert Gibb, 1881. National War Museum of Scotland Riding down, the hussars were met with an incensed protection by the Thin Red Line of the 93rd. Turning the foe back after a couple of volleys, the Highlanders held their ground. Scarlett, spotting Ryzhovs principle power to his left side, wheeled his horsemen and assaulted. Stopping his soldiers, Ryzhov met the British charge and attempted to wrap them with his bigger numbers. In an irate battle, Scarletts men had the option to drive back the Russians, compelling them to withdraw back over the statures and up the North Valley (Map). <img information srcset=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/wr2RgKzHcfsYshM4sK3pRtHnYmY=/300x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Cavalryatbalaklava2-5c057d51c9e77c00016aff65.jpg 300w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/q3gK9bMCDj56XM8Y8-JTNt_4gXU=/1151x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Cavalryatbalaklava2-5c057d51c9e77c00016aff65.jpg 1151w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/5UpzhXkl0JkyBayqGkLtgzwzsEg=/2002x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Cavalryatbalaklava2-5c057d51c9e77c00016aff65.jpg 2002w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/czaqwiuVWRiazVF94MN8oZXimGk=/3704x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Cavalryatbalaklava2-5c057d51c9e77c00016aff65.jpg 3704w information src=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/FFEutBU_CVwkKrOqLRuLIk1KOag=/3704x2752/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Cavalryatbalaklava2-5c057d51c9e77c00016aff65.jpg src=//:0 alt=Battle of Balaclava class=lazyload information click-tracked=true information img-lightbox=true information

10 Tips on How to Write a Professional Email

10 Tips on How to Write a Professional Email Notwithstanding the prominence of messaging and online networking, email remains the most widely recognized type of composed correspondence in the business world-and the most usually abused. Too frequently, email messages snap, snarl, and bark-as though being compact implied that you needed to sound bossy. Not really. Consider this email message as of late sent to all staff individuals on a huge college grounds: The time has come to reestablish your personnel/staff stopping decals. New decals are required by Nov. 1. Leaving Rules and Regulations necessitate that all vehicles driven nearby should show the present decal. Slapping a Hi! before this message doesnt take care of the issue. It just includes a bogus demeanor of amiability. Rather, consider how much more pleasant and shorter-and likely progressively viable the email would be in the event that we basically included a please and tended to the peruser straightforwardly: If it's not too much trouble restore your personnel/staff stopping decals by November 1. Obviously, if the writer of the email had genuinely remembered perusers, they may have incorporated another helpful goody: a piece of information with regards to how and where to restore the decals. Utilizing the email about the stopping decals for instance, take a stab at consolidating these tips into your own composition for better, more clear, progressively viable messages: Continuously fill in the headline with a point that implies something to your peruser. Not Decals or Important! be that as it may, Deadline for New Parking Decals.Put your primary concern in the initial sentence. Most perusers wont stay for an amazement ending.Never start a message with an obscure This-as in This should be finished by 5:00. Continuously indicate what youre composing about.Dont utilize ALL CAPITALS (no yelling!), or every single lowercase letter either (except if youre the writer E. E. Cummings).As a general principle, PLZ evade textspeak (shortenings and abbreviations): You might be ROFLOL (moving on the floor roaring with laughter), however your peruser might be left pondering WUWT (whats up with that).Be brief and pleasant. In the event that your message runs longer than a few short passages, consider (a) decreasing the message or (b) giving a connection. Be that as it may, regardless, dont snap, snarl, or bark.Remember to state please and bless your heart. Further more, would not joke about this. For instance, Thank you for understanding why evening breaks have been disposed of is snobby and trivial. Its not considerate. Include a mark obstruct with suitable contact data (as a rule, your name, work locale, and telephone number, alongside a lawful disclaimer whenever required by your organization). Do you have to mess the mark hinder with a cunning citation and work of art? Likely not.Edit and edit before hitting send. You may think youre too occupied to even consider sweating the little stuff, yet shockingly, your peruser may think youre a thoughtless dolt.Finally, answer immediately to genuine messages. On the off chance that you need over 24 hours to gather data or settle on a choice, send a concise reaction clarifying the postponement.

Potential of the Internet of Thing Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Talk about the Potential of the Internet of Thing. Answer: Presentation Web of Things is set to agitate the manner in which we live and work anyway until further notification we should focus on the live some portion of that declaration. Splendid homes stacked with related things are stacked with potential results to make our lives less requesting, increasingly accommodating, and progressively pleasant. There is no lack of potential results for keen home IoT devices, and home robotization is apparently the flood without limits. Underneath, we've totaled a point by point control on how the IoT and house computerization will change our way of life. IoT at Home Capability of the Internet of Things inside your own home IoT, sensors and actuators related by frameworks to figuring systems has gotten enormous thought over the span of late years. Another Institute gives an account of IoT, Mapping the impetus past the development, tries to choose definitely how IoT advancement can make authentic money related regard. With IoT making the buzz, savvy homes is the most looked IoT related component on Google. With IoT happening as intended associations are building things to make your life simpler and accommodating. Sagacious Home has transformed into the dynamic ladder of achievement in the private spaces and it is foreseen Smart homes will advance toward turning out to be as normal as cutting edge cell phones. The expense of claiming a house is the best expense in a home loan holder's life (Hamill, 2015). Splendid Home things are ensured to save time, essentialness and money. With Smart home associations like Nest, Ring, Ecobee, and August, to give a few models, will advance toward turning out to be nucle ar family checks and are aiming to pass on a never watched difficulty. Current gadgets utilized in my abode Current gadgets IoT no matter how you look at it home security system fuses a HD camcorder and sensors for air quality, development, sound, temperature and vibration in one unit. The system uses machine making sense of how to make sense of what establishes standard activity in the home and allows you to send alerts to the Canary versatile application if something changes. By learning common models for such things as temperature and incorporating racket levels when people are at home. You can organize alerts to be sent to different customers, including basic customers and fortification customers who get alerts when you're away (Khanbhai, Burke Morley, 2014). Associated by TCP's home lighting motorization structure fuses an entry contraption that connections into your home switch, remote control, convenient application and two wise LED handles, and it can support up to 250 lights and control them solely or as a social affair. The adaptable application allows you to screen the status of lighting and moreover remotely decrease globules and turn them on and off. TCP offers one-contact pre-altered settings and lights can similarly be changed to kill, turn on or have their lighting levels adjusted at specific conditions of day. All out Connect Remote Services join capable security checking with singular astute home automation, empowering you to screen and control everything from observation cameras and smoke alerts to lighting and window conceals (Son, Oh Lee, 2014). The structure can be checked and controlled from a versatile application or by strategy for a divider or work area mounted hardware console. You'll require it expertly presented by an affirmed Honeywell trader and it just support Z-Wave contraptions, which infers it won't work with Honeywell's purchaser line of Wi-Fi enabled astute home indoor controllers. Brilliant water checking gadgets: Smart home watching and control structure supports a broad assortment of insightful devices and mechanical assemblies, from home security sensors to a keen sprinkler system that screens water use (Jian, Zeng, Huang, Jia Zhou, 2014). The home change retailer offers a Safe and Secure startup pack that consolidates a middle point, development and contact sensors and a keypad; a Comfort and Control unit that fuses a sharp indoor controller and splendid connection; and a Smart Kit that fuses most of the above notwithstanding a Wi-Fi run extender/ Keen divider switches and fittings are home computerization system can screen and control stamped wise divider switches and attachments, LED lights, development sensors and lighting devices, all from your program or Smartphone application (McCary Xiao, 2015). There's no middle point required everything is supervised through free cloud advantage. Each contraption has its own channel, which you can use to interface it to online organizations, for instance, Gmail to trigger specific exercises. More astute coffee: A normally made pot of coffee, custom fitted correctly to your tendencies, when you quit hitting the snooze get? No doubt, it's not hard to consider why the Smarter Coffee is a champion among other sharp home devices around. The Wi-Fi engaged coffee maker can be controlled from wherever in your townhouse, sends you refreshes when its water tank is coming up short, changes the coffee quality and can even be set as a morning alert. Remote switch/run extender that moreover fills in as a smart home checking and control structure that sponsorships sharp devices and mechanical assemblies using the ZigBee, Z-Wave and Wi-Fi trades shows. Despite offering a Smartphone application and program based control interface, a touch screen concealing LCD that limits as an ace watching and control console, and is proposed to be divider mountable (Cyril Jose Malekian, 2013). One of the most invaluable IoT improvements as of late is SMART Freezes. This gadget is a cooler that uncovers to you at whatever point you're missing the mark on channel! For whatever time span that you commit somewhere in the range of a chance to set things really before all else, this is a gadget that can upgrade your regular day to day existence (Lee, Kim, 2016). Clever Oven: It won't not look like significantly in excess of a toaster grill anyway this edge greatness can do everything from toast to direct cook pork bear. Sensors comprehend how best to cook whatever you have on the menu, while Wi-Fi arrange and an introduced camera stream and live video to our Smartphone. Issues and Solutions Issues Utilization: The supposed Internet of Things, portrayed as any generally used thing that interfaces with the web, has gone up against a lot of examination for its nonappearance of security. Masters state these devices regularly need pushed protection from software engineers, and, if they do, buyers every now and again don't perceive how to change the security settings to guarantee themselves. Home robotization newfound accomplishment could forestall it given the different applications and various remote shows reinforced by different contraptions (Li, Li, Mak Tang, 2016). Control: Smart home advancement is truly cool until the point that you're left sitting unaware in light of the fact that a framework power outage is shielding you from turning on your remote light. Many smart home clients likely made them fully aware of a significant issue with the Internet of Things. Those with sharp home things before long joined the thousands whimpering about the power outage, some of which laughed that they were sitting absent considering the way that their remote lights wouldn't turn on. System: Connectivity, The Internet of Things with its massive advancement widens its applications to the everyday environment of everybody by changing a home to sharp home. Keen home is a related home that interfaces all sort of cutting edge devices to pass on one another through the web. These contraptions shape a home region sort out where correspondences are enabled by different shows (Mukhopadhyay Sen Gupta, 2008). As these devices are arranged by different associations with different measures and developments there is an issue exists in their accessibility. Security and Privacy: This improvement passes on a couple of preferences, as it will change the manner in which people do standard assignments and perhaps change the world. Having an astute home is no ifs, ands or buts cool and will draw in a couple of issues our guests, anyway wise lighting can truly diminish general essentialness usage and lower your electric bill. Open Perception: If the IoT is reliably going to truly expel, this ought to be the chief issue that makers address. Potential Solutions Prepared ace gathering: Active consideration servers watch and control bunches that have developed a wide data base during the time as we administer various establishments around the state. Complete organizations: The Active Care bunch screens and manages your structures the entire day and throughout the night, 365 days every year. Fixed worth: No curveballs close to the completion of the month; Our settled evaluating suggests you realize unequivocally the amount it will cost you paying little mind to what number of issues have been settled. Pay when we develop: Why waste money placing assets into programming you never use or that is hard to supervise? Whether or not you incorporate a client, leave a server, or close down an office you are charged for what you've used in the midst of the administrator foundation. Update contraptions as often as possible: As security issues are recognized, makers make updates and fix to close get away from provisos and abstain from vulnerabilities (Miller, 2015). Monitor contraptions: If you lose your propelled cell phone, Fit piece or tablet, the person who finds it can have legacy access to your entire home overflowing with devices; you'll need to check your security settings and change your passwords in case you lose a controlling device. Splendid home development is proposed to help your great hammer even more gainfully and to make it less difficult for you to access and control distinctive highligh

10 Characteristics of Successful Entrepreneurs

10 Characteristics of Successful Entrepreneurs What are great entrepreneurs made of? If you’ve ever thought about becoming an entrepreneur, then you need to possess and develop few characteristics.Below are ten traits and qualities successful entrepreneurs have, and tips on how you can get those too. #1. UNENDING PASSION“Enthusiasm is the sparkle in your eyes, the swing in your gait, the grip of your hand and the irresistible surge of will and energy to execute your ideas.” â€" Henry FordIt might seem like a cliché but being an entrepreneur isn’t just a smooth ride to success. If you want to succeed and to be happy in life, you need to do things that make you smile and not cry. Every good entrepreneur has a tremendous passion for what they are doing â€" for changing the world with their products and services.It might sound crazy but passion is the reason entrepreneurs get up in the morning. It provides people with motivation, movement and resilience. You won’t be stuck in the rut if you have passion â€" you won’t be fazed by problems.If you have the drive to keep going, you’ll keep moving forwards and you’ll be more creative in finding solutions. Passion also means you stay hungry as an entrepreneur because it ensures you don’t settle.Your passion to succeed and to create a great product or service means you’ll continue to learn and seek answers â€" ensuring you improve as an entrepreneur in the process.How to find your passion?Start by creating a simple list of things you love. What things give you the most joy in life? What are the actions, the people, the emotions and the things you enjoy the most?Don’t think what you think you want to do but what you actually enjoy doing. If money and fame were out of the equation, what would make you get up in the morning and put a smile on your face?If you think about the issue like this, then you can start understanding where your passion is rather than focusing on where you think it should be.#2. THE ABILITY TO STAY MOTIVATED“Success is walking from failure to failure with no loss of enthusiasm.” â€" Winston ChurchillThe life of an entrepreneur can be hard and no matter how passionate you are, sometimes getting out of bed might seem overwhelming. But the successful entrepreneurs do it â€" th ey stay motivated even when times get tough. A great entrepreneur is the one who encounters a problem and still keeps moving forward because they are driven.You need to also understand that the road of an entrepreneur can be lonely. The world’s greatest entrepreneurs haven’t relied on others to motivate them. They are able to self-motivate and to find the fire inside them each morning.How to motivate yourself?Motivation takes focus. The quick way to increase both is to start setting clear goals. You can find stunning tips for goal setting in the video below: The key is to make the goals small and tangible. Small in the sense that you break down a bigger goal â€" such as launching your own business â€" to smaller goals â€" setting up a website, finding a partner, etc. You also need the goals to be tangible. For example, becoming an entrepreneur is not as a tangible goal as launching a cosmetic shop online (although you are doing the same thing in both situations).Make sure you ta ke time to reward yourself for accomplishing tasks. It doesn’t have to be anything huge â€" a new book, a date with your spouse or a five-minute nap can be just as motivating as a huge, expensive holiday.It also helps to surround yourself with other high-achievers. If you don’t have other entrepreneurs around you or people with big goals, you might find yourself drifting away from these ideals.It’s important to be with like-minded people (not those who agree with you on everything, but who have similar values and goals). It can help you solve problems when the going gets tough if you have examples of other people doing the same.Finally, it helps to listen to your passion and to allow it to guide you. If you are passionate about what you do, you’ll almost automatically feel motivated to get up and work each morning.#3. WILLINGNESS TO TAKE AND TO TOLERATE RISK“Security is mostly superstition. It does not exist in nature, nor do the children of men as a whole experience it. A voiding danger is no safer in the long run than outright exposure. Life is either a daring adventure or nothing.” â€" Helen KellerSuccessful entrepreneurs are those who take risks. Setting up a business from nothing is a risk in itself â€" if that makes you lose sleep, then you are going to end up burning out in the next months. You need to see risks as part of the job description and to be able to navigate the risky world of business in style.These entrepreneurs understand the difference between calculated risks and mindless risk. They know risks will be part of the game but by taking their chances, they can succeed quicker than if they just sat around waiting for the right moment (which almost never comes!).To succeed, you can’t let the odds to rule â€" you need to know when to take the risks and when to avoid them.How to become better at tolerating risks?What can you do to become better at tolerating risks? The best thing to do is to keep learning. Learn about being an entrep reneur, your industry, the taxes, human behavior and everything out there. The more knowledge you have, the better equipped you are at taking risks. You limit the chances of making a mistake because you are able to trust your knowledge.Furthermore, you need to become better at creating backup plans. The risks you take are easier to handle when you know there’s a Plan B. You won’t feel scared or nervous during the process because you know there is a backup to fall to â€" something to keep you going even when you don’t first succeed.#4. BEING ABLE TO GET ALONG AND TO LEAD PEOPLE“A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way and shows the way.” â€" John C. MaxwellSuccess never comes to people who do it all on their own. Every successful person on this planet can and should thank other people for helping them achieve those goals.The difference with many successful entrepreneurs is they don’t just have these people in their life but they also get along with them and lead th em to better things. Entrepreneurs are great at elevating others while still acknowledging the importance of other people in their own success story.Entrepreneurs genuinely like people and they want to surround themselves with other high-achieving people. You need to have that networking bug and a real desire to keep in touch with people.You should be a person who cares about other people and likes to help them. It also helps when you know how to get people on your side and working towards the common goal â€" a successful entrepreneur is always a great leader too.How to network and lead more effectively?It’s essential to start treating people with kindness and compassion. But you can’t really fake this; you actually have to care about solving problems for others and helping them succeed. If you got this empathy and compassion, you are on the right track.But you can learn to be better at networking and leading. It’s a good idea to start networking as part of your everyday sched ule. You can do this by:Schedule a networking hourThis should be an hour or two of your time spent just on networking.Do it at least three times a week.Connect with the people you knowUse the time to connect with those people.Send e-mails, make phone calls and organise meetingsThe key here is to make sure you stay in touch with people around the year and not just when you need something. You can’t just talk to those who are useful for you at that point in time. It’s crucial to be available for those who need you so that they can help you when you need it.In terms of leadership, it’s important to find your voice. Consider checking out the leadership post for more.#5. OPENNESS TO CHANGE“Some people don’t like change, but you need to embrace change if the alternative is disaster.” â€" Elon MuskThe world is constantly changing and this applies to the world of business. The different industries out there are transforming â€" technology is one of the major reasons for the chan ge. For entrepreneurs, the key is to adapt to the change quick enough. Trying to fight against change would be a huge mistake.If you don’t have an open mind in the modern world, you are likely to miss out on opportunities. You can’t look the changing world around you and think you’re way is the only way of doing it.A successful entrepreneur is always looking for new ways of doing things. If you understand change is inevitable then you can succeed in the world of business.How to become adapted to change?Change is not always easy. But you need to view it as an opportunity rather than a problem or threat. Sometimes change seems bad at the outset and it’s painful. But it mostly leads to something better â€" it always opens up a new opportunity even if you can’t see it straight away.It’s a good idea to become better at dealing with change by forcing yourself to new situations. If you willingly seek out new experiences and unexpected situations, you will learn how to adapt to these moments.Simple things such as travelling to new places, trying different foods, challenging yourself with new situations are enough to help you withstand the stress of change better.#6. TOUGHNESS TO KEEP MOVING FORWARD“Achievement seems to be connected with action. Successful men and women keep moving. They make mistakes but they don’t quit.” â€" Conrad HiltonAs you’ve already become aware, the life of an entrepreneur is not easy. But the successful ones have a strong characteristic of staying tough in the face of adversity.These entrepreneurs know that things don’t always go according to plan and the world of business can provide you with your (un)fair-share of setbacks. But no matter what life throws at these entrepreneurs, they will keep marching forward. They have an aura of resilience around them.How to be more resilient?If you want to survive as an entrepreneur, you need to build up resilience. You can do this by building up your confidence. It’s important to trust your own ability to survive and to succeed. If you don’t trust yourself, you can’t keep moving forward when the going gets tough. This resilience and confidence stem also from your ability to take feedback. If you know how to learn from your mistakes, then you can move forward stronger. You realize that negative feedback or mistakes don’t define or destroy you â€" you can use the experiences to grow and to learn, becoming stronger and better as a result.It’s as crucial to understand that some things are out of your control. You need to be able to identify things you can change (not enough customers â€" increase your reach) and those you can’t (customers don’t have enough spending power because of the current economy).The ability to know what things you can change and what you can’t, will equip you to handle things and to let go of worrying about things you can’t control.#7. DESIRE TO COMPETE AND TO WIN“Winners never quit, and quitters never win.” â€" Vince LombardiEntrepreneurs can’t be everybody’s friends. There is no such thing as a participation award in the world of business. Some win and some lose. The most successful entrepreneurs want to win. They like the competition and thrive on the prospect of beating the competition. Ultimately, the aim of an entrepreneur is to be better than the competition and if you don’t have this thirst to win, you won’t succeed.You need the hunger to win. It guarantees you are always working as hard as possible. The need to be the best will ensure you don’t settle for second best but you thrive for greatness each time. Being an entrepreneur is similar to being a top athlete â€" you need the same willingness to put yourself on the line and the hunger to come out on top.How to love competing?It’s important to understand the love for competition doesn’t mean you wish bad for others. Entrepreneurs don’t compete purely for personal gain. They want to win because they believe in their visi on â€" they know others will benefit from their victories.So, you first need to understand this. You need to know that you don’t want to harm other entrepreneurs â€" you just think and know your product or service is the winning one.Be willing to put yourself on the line. Challenge yourself with new experiences and start looking for those clever ways to make your product or service better. Don’t shy away from a healthy competition â€" find the opportunities where you can prove yourself.#8. UNDERSTANDING OF FINANCES AND BUSINESS BASICS (OR THE WILLINGNESS TO LEARN!)“Rule No. 1: never lose money. Rule No. 2: never forget rule number 1.” â€" Warren BuffettGood entrepreneurs need to be good with money â€" it’s as simple as that. There has to be a certain understanding of how business works. You can’t grow a successful business if you don’t know anything about finances or business. Even if you don’t do it all on your own, you’d still need to be smart enough to figure ou t who are those people worth listening to.When it comes to entrepreneurialism, many think it’s just about the big picture. But it isn’t just about the ability to identify these major forces and trends. You do need to have attention to detail and an understanding of how minor things impact the business. Successful entrepreneurs understand what cash flow is and how their taxation impacts the bottom line.How to develop your business skills?While some have an innate ability to understand numbers and the like, the great thing is that it can all be learnt later in life too. You just need to be willing to learn and to listen to those who’ve already made it in the world of business.You should definitely read business books, follow entrepreneurs on social media, check up industry blogs and attend seminars and workshops. Take in everything you can about how to make it as an entrepreneur and how to handle money.Don’t just settle for other people telling you something is a certain way b ut learn about it and ask questions. Don’t be afraid to say when you don’t understand something â€" it’s the only way to learn.#9. CREATIVE AND PROGRESSIVE VIEW OF THE WORLD“You can’t connect the dots looking forward; you can only connect them looking backward. So you have to trust that the dots will somehow connect in your future.” â€" Steve JobsSuccess in the world of entrepreneurialism means innovation. The best entrepreneurs are creative creatures â€" they see opportunities in places where others might not. They think outside of the box and introduce us to products and services we sometimes didn’t realize we needed.You need to be willing to this change, as mentioned earlier. You need to be open to it and you need to have a progressive view of the world. You’ll succeed if you understand the world is changing and you need to embrace and innovate this change.How to stay creative?It’s sometimes hard to keep creating when you’ve found a formula that works. But itâ €™s important to constantly stay on the lookout for new ideas â€" you never know what you find.Again, one of the best ways to keep innovating is to keep learning. If you are learning new things and challenging your mind with new ideas, you will learn new ways of looking at things. You don’t want to be stuck with just your industry but to see what entrepreneurs in different sectors and in different countries are doing.By surrounding yourself with new information and different people, you will become more creative and open to ideas. So, don’t be afraid to trial new technology, trying different methods and techniques and meeting people with different mindsets.#10. DETERMINATION IN THE FACE OF DECISIONS“In every success story, you will find someone who has made a courageous decision.” â€" Peter F. DruckerSuccessful entrepreneurs are great at making decisions. Now, this doesn’t always mean they make the right decisions. (Remember how they can face adversity and how they accept risks!)But it does mean they are willing to make those decisions nonetheless. Successful entrepreneurs don’t ponder a decision for weeks and months â€" they understand the opportunity might slip by if they did.The world of business is changing fast. If you don’t move with it, you are going to lose out on opportunities. You can’t ponder decisions for too long â€" sometimes you just need to decide even when you’re not sure of the facts. It all comes down to your ability to tolerate the risks, too.How to become better at decision-making?You need to learn to stop focusing on things that don’t matter. You need to be able to quickly identify those aspects and elements that influence the decision and those that don’t. Mindtools.com has a seven-step formula for decision-making:Step 1. Creating a constructive environmentStep 2. Investigating the situation in detailStep 3. Generating good alternativesStep 4. Exploring the solutionsStep 5. Choosing the best solutionStep 6. Evaluati ng the planStep 7. Communicating the decision and taking actionYou might also want to follow the footsteps of notable entrepreneurs and remove the need to make mindless decisions. There’s a reason Mark Zuckerberg always wears the same colored clothingFinally, it can help to start setting timelines and goals. Not only can it be a motivational tool, as discussed above, but it can also help you become a direct decision-maker. You’ll become better at moving from A to B â€" you have vision.THE CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE SUCCESSFUL ENTREPRENEURSThe above ten characteristics are things all successful entrepreneurs share. If you look at them closely, you notice how they aren’t stand-alone traits people possess or don’t possess.They are connection qualities and behaviors â€" without passion, you can’t find motivation and without your ability to take risks, you can’t ever be decisive in the face of decisions.These qualities can also be enhanced and emboldened. You can learn to find your passion or become better at knowing how the world of business works. That’s the beauty of entrepreneurialism. If you got the spark, you can probably recognize yourself from the text.

Achieving A Successful Knowledge Transfer In Strategic Alliances - Free Essay Example

Knowledge was closely investigated by academic researchers for the last few decades. It is nowadays considered as one of the most important strategic assets (Winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the firms (Kogut and Zander, 1992); this perspective is associated with the knowledgeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"based view (Grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies exist about knowledge. As Winter (1987) suggests, knowledge can be created, stored and transmitted (transferred), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. Different studies consider these various stages. However, the process of transfer is very interesting to reflect on because it is precisely knowledge transfer that has been established by several academics as having a major impact on performance (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Osterloh and Frey 2000). Some literature analyzes the process of knowledge transfer itself (Oà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Dell and Grayson, 1998; Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants (Grant and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996; Salk, 1996; Hennart et al. 1999; Dyer and Hatch, 2006; Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed light on the stages of knowledge transfer and factors that can positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, some researchers like Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“soft issuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? such as absorptive capacity and culture in successful knowledge sharing. Moreover, different researchers (Inkpen, 2000; Mowery et al. 1996), studied knowledge in the context of a strategic alliance. Some studies convey the idea that this might be the most appropriate form of collaboration in order to share (transfer) knowledge because of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). Other academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that alliances face in the process of knowledge transfer. Therefore it might be useful to combine these ideas and see what makes alliances being so unique and how knowledge can be transferred in these structures. This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the transfer of knowledge successful in-between partners of strategic alliance by reviewing determinants of knowledge transfer, particularities of alliances and possible strategies to follow in order to achieve the transfer. Problem statement The problem indication brings us to delimitate the following area of research: Successful knowledge transfer in a strategic alliance Research Questions Since knowledge becomes an essential asset, and its manipulation might have strong impact on the wellbeing and performance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the knowledge transfer. Our inquiry will be done by first looking at what is knowledge and its different kinds. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in general) will be considered to see how knowledge is shared, finishing with the factors that can impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this process, this includes the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“soft issuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? sited previously. Research question 1: What are the key determinants in the process of knowledge transfer? Strategic alliances are often used by firms to transfer knowledge. Several studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to discuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Research question 2: What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the process of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation? Perhaps the most practical issue for organizations involved in the process of knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for both partners. Therefore the third research question will deal with possible behavior and ways of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Research question3: What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance adopt  (implement) to enhance the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face? Research methods This is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management Journal Structure of the thesis In the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to gain knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature about the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it. In the third chapter we are going to take a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researchers think that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s similarities, orientation, strategy, resources). The last research question will be answered in the fourth chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to enable a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several challenges. At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review bringing up possible questions for future discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Chapter 2: The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer 1/ What is knowledge In general knowledge is considered to be gained by observation, study and experiences. It is the mixture of values, context information, expert insight (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvements unlimited number of times. It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is neither of these two. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) clearly underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“processed informationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. In this sense it is also possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995): individuals produce knowledge by processing information through their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights change creating the opportunity to proceed differently in new situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998; Weick 1995). 2/ Types of knowledge Another approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds: tacit and explicit. The observation of the existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of terms used were substantially enlarged to: formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), theoretical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994; Winter, 1987), a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"know-whyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ knowledge (Sanchez 1997). To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is easily subjected to codification in a formal language (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this type of knowledge can à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"be communicated from its possessor to another person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“in the knowà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? as the originatorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability: it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understoodà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s also possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"such knowledge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p. 170). Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001; Fang et al., 2007; Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better-quality performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991; Grant, 1993; Spender, 1993). Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is hard to replicate and share. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who both support the fact that tacit knowledge is context-specific: it à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"is a knowledge typically acquired on the job or in the situation where it is usedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Therefore, on the one hand tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this same characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can hardly replicate it (Grant,1993; Sobal and Lei, 1994). 3/ Models: How to transmit knowledge Before getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged. In order to understand how knowledge is transferred it is possible to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? by Singley and Anderson (1989). The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This movement of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through group, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“spiral of knowledge creationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit (company, group or department) affects another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) supports this vision: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and expe riences) in a new setting (i.e. another company, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as: source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer). In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the implementation phase divided into several stages: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through and evaluation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Szulanski 2000, p.12) Furthermore, Oà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Dell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. Primary the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted. A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are three main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effortlessly done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"process of observation and imitationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p.122). What is more, transferred knowledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“common knowledgeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of aggregation which means that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge. 4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative) Several features may play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred. Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity; it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult. Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share. Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to certain kind of transaction relations. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity. It seems that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer; this means that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always easy to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he possesses. Furthermore, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledgeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"based systems without primary having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture. Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motivation also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. Absorptive capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"exploit outside sources of knowledgeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983). Chapter 3: Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transfer Combining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. Other factors as the increase in customersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ expectations and the less strict regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994; Harrigan 1988; Kogut 1988; Nielsen 1988). Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Moreover, scholars have identified several key reasons for firms to form alliances. Among these usually appears risk mitigation, economies of scale/scope, entries to new markets (Inkpen 2000; Hennart, 1988; Kogut, 1988), and facilitated flows of technology-based capabilities (Mowery et al. 1996; Kogut, 1988; Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Hamel, 1991) + (Mariti and Smiley, 1983; Hamel et al., 1989; Shan, 1990; Powell and Brantley, 1992; Mody, 1993; Khanna, 1996) Mowery 1996. However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the means for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“internalization within the firm, market contracts, and relational contractsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify, whereas market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to learn from the partners (Grant, 1996; Hamel, 1991; Khanna et al., 1998; Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving, and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ 1/ Definition strategic alliance In the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that cooperate together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of goals (Harrigan 1988; Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and capabilities (Teece, 1992); they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 19882002) and share benefits and risks of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish exchange relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997); others consider equity alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered: a non-equity alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity); an equity alliance (unilateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm); a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Mowery et al. (1996) have as well identified various types of alliances: equity joint venture, license agreement, cross-licensing and technology sharing, customer-supplier partnership, mixed modes, RD contract, and joint development agreement. 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer? à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute perhaps the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s competencyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Simonin (1999, 595). There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect valuable resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first two combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be sold to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991; Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions. Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983; Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire knowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994; Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991; Polanyi 1966; Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate risks of bad investments. The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"indigestibilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ problem of MA, quite the opposite of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997; Inkpen and Beamish, 1997; Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. Within an alliance the company does not have to pay for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"digestionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner. Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like possibility to achieve à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“early-moverà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? advantage and risk spreading. Early-mover advantage signifies recombining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this means à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for introduction of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004): à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating additional knowledge.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly. 3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge? Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are: technical capital (capability to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks). Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance: absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with alliances, suitable design for knowledge exchange, and choice of alliance structure. In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"historical and path dependent in natureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by: the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized; the width of specialized knowledge required from firm members; the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge. Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) combinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base. Collaborative know-how affects firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiencesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliancesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996; Powell et al., 1996). Teece (2000) stressed the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing. He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and flexibility expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies. The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000). Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on knowledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources. Inkpen (2002) identifies five categories of antecedents of alliance learning: learning partner characteristics; teaching partner characteristics; knowledge characteristics; relationship factors; and alliance form. Two key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000). Chapter 4: potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might face Strategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first thing that comes out from the numerous literature on strategic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999; Mowery 1996). The literature elaborates on so called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“learning racesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skillsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. This creates a significant challenge for strategic alliance. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed; functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (QuÃÆ' ©lin, 1997). to be continued. When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchangedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. They also add, that explicit knowledge protective policies and procedures by one partner, harmfully influence the perception the other partner might have on honest and open cooperation: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"For instance, not revealing relevant information and knowledge may be perceived as unwillingness to devote adequate resources to the allianceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. This is in line with Simonin (1999) way of thinking, where knowledge protectiveness is positively related to ambiguity, which in turn impacts negatively on knowledge transfer. Therefore for successful knowledge transfer partners might be willing to cooperate and minimize knowledge protectiveness (Pisano, 1988). Lee et al. (2007) suggest t hat knowledge protectiveness (still necessary if reasonably employed) should be accompanied with building up relational capital (trust, communication and commitment). Therefore one does not have to fear to trust in an alliance. In the contrary, established trust relationship between partners has been shown to bring positive outcomes for transfer of knowledge and learning. Relational capital can be also expressed as social exchanges (social exchanges view). From this view, learning and knowledge transfer in strategic alliances are also positively influenced by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"commitment, trust and mutual influence between partnersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Senthil et al., 2005). The results of their study show that reciprocal commitment between partners enhances interfirm learning because moral obligation of partners permits to build mutual commitment. They explain further, that interdependence and joint coordination increase due to the mutual resource commitment. To them trust is built progressively as knowledge, skills and competences are gained through alliance interactions. Trustworthiness, as well as goodwill, is shown to be key factors influencing effective transfer of knowledge in well functioning alliance. To be continued with: Gulati (1996) and others about the obstacles to interfirm knowledge transfer created by distance, cultural differences, and other factors. David C. Mowery, Joanne E. Oxley, Brian S. Silverman 1996 Strategic Alliances and Interfirm Knowledge Transfer Davenport and Prusak (1998) eight critical success factors for knowledge transfer: effective knowledge measurement, technical architecture, flexible organizational structure, knowledge-friendly culture, clear vision, a performance-based reward system, multi-channel knowledge transfer and senior management support. Gao Riley 2010 others Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusion Discussion Academic and practical recommendations